The United States PSYOP Organization in the Pacific During World War II

The United States PSYOP Organization
in the Pacific During World War II

Loading leaflet shells in the Pacific

This article in an attempt to explore and study the psychological operations (PSYOP) organizations that were formed during World War II. It is a work in progress. As new organizations and connections between such organizations are found, the article will be updated. This article is mostly concerned with PSYOP used in the Pacific. We discuss American PSYOP in Europe in another article. Many of the numbers of leaflets and newspaper printed are estimated. The number of printed products produced during World War II is in the billions, so it is difficult to be accurate. All the numbers mentioned in this article are from published references, but they do sometimes conflict.

Admiral Chester W. Nimitz

In the Pacific, most Navy commanders were lukewarm toward PSYOP. Showing little enthusiasm were Ernest J. King, Commander in Chief of the U.S. Fleet; Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, Commander in Chief of the pacific Fleet (CINCPAC) and later Commander in Chief of the Pacific Ocean Area (CINCPOA); and Admiral William H, (Bull) Halsey, Commander, South Pacific Force (COMSOPAC). In most Pacific theaters, PSYOP operated under strict military control with much less structure that was present in the European theaters, and usually with little encouragement and resources.

William E Daugherty, in an article entitled "U.S. Psychological Warfare Organizations in WWII" in A Psychological Warfare Casebook, says, "Admiral Halsey, the area commander, simply did not want to have anything to do with psychological warfare. The only propaganda operations ever conducted in the areas under his command were the improvised, largely uncoordinated, efforts of enthusiastic Japanese language and intelligence personnel desirous of capturing a larger number of Japanese prisoners for interrogation purposes."

Speaking of Nimitz, Daugherty continues, "In CINCPOA under Admiral Nimitz, psychological warfare activities as a recognized coordinated instrument of military was even later in coming into being...Late in 1944 or early 1945 the Joint Intelligence Center (JICPOA) at Nimitz's headquarters set up a small planning staff to plan propaganda operations against Japanese troops...It was just five days before the surrender of Japan that the CINCPAC reached the decision that psychological warfare was a sufficiently potent support weapon to deserve the status as a special headquarters branch. Accordingly, a PWB was established at Nimitz's headquarters." Having said that, I have seen a great number of Naval leaflets prepared by CINCPAC-CINCPOA in historical archives and have owned a booklet containing over 200 of them. Most all are in color and they normally have just a numerical code, for example, 100 (Where is your Navy?), 405 (To the Japanese soldier), 802 (While you continue your future resistance), 1005 (Since December 8, 1941), and the notice of surrender, 2118 (Imperial rescript to all subjects).

General Douglas MacArthur

Significant U.S. PSYOP activity in the Pacific was concentrated in the Australian-dominated Far-Eastern Liaison Office (FELO) of the Southwest Pacific theater under General Douglas MacArthur, Supreme Commander, Southwest Pacific Area (SWPA) , who in June 1944 established a Psychological Warfare Branch (PWB). MacArthur, an Army General, reported to Admiral King under an unusual agreement, but was independent of CINCPAC.

FELO was responsible for:

1. Preparation of propaganda material useful to the other sections and initially for dissemination by them to lower the morale of the Japanese forces.

2. Misleading the Japanese regarding our military intentions.

3. Influencing the New Guinea native populations so they would impair the Japanese war effort and assist the Allies

The Allied Intelligence Bureau (AIB) served as Gen. Douglas MacArthur's intelligence and covert action organization from July 1942 to the end of the war. It was a combined U.S.-Australian activity headquartered in Melbourne. The AIB answered to MacArthur's chief intelligence officer, Maj. Gen. Charles A. Willoughby, but was under the immediate direction of Col. G.C. Roberts, Director of Intelligence of the Australian Army.

AIB's mission was:

To obtain and report information of the enemy in the South West Pacific Area, exclusive of the continent of Australia and Tasmania, and in addition, where practicable, to weaken the enemy by sabotage and destruction of morale.

AIB was staffed by personnel from ten armed services from Australia, Britain, America, Netherlands East Indies and Asia.

Speaking of MacArthur, Daugherty says of the PWB:

A quasi-special staff section was established under the direct supervision of the Military Secretary to the Commanding General. In this unique setup the Chief of the Psychological Warfare Branch enjoyed direct access to the commanding general of the theater...There was little, if any, attempt made to establish a highly integrated staff of the type that emerged in Europe.

Almost every wartime book about the OSS mentions Donovan's attempt to gain entry into MacArthur's headquarters. Such anecdotes are found in both The Shadow Warriors by Bradley F. Smith and OSS by R. Harris Smith. The books tell of a number of high-level military and civilian officials sent to meet with MacArthur to plead the agency's case. None were successful:

There was one attempt to smuggle a naval officer who was an OSS agent into MacArthur's headquarters. One of the OSS plotters later wrote, "Our man was captured - not by the enemy - by MacArthur and sent home."

Perhaps the most telling report of the real enmity between the rival organizations was when Psywar Chief General Bonner Fellers submitted a plan for secret operations against Japan. The OSS experts in Washington read the plan and forwarded a lengthy criticism. MacArthur's headquarters replied, "Our experts state that your experts are obviously mere superficial observers." In 1945 when asked about the OSS by the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff MacArthur said, "I know little of its methods, have no control of its agencies, and consequently have no plans for its future employment."

British intelligence agencies were also unable to send agents into the southwest Pacific Area and eventually used the London Times correspondent in Australia to keep track of MacArthur and the American operations. We should also note that when MacArthur led U.N. troops in Korea in 1951 he tried to keep the CIA out of his command. He was less successful.

Josette H. Williams mentions the OWI contribution to the Pacific War in Studies in Intelligence - The Journal of the American Intelligence Professional. In an article entitled "The Information War in the Pacific, 1945," she says:

OWI was responsible for using information warfare to promote distrust of Japanese military leaders, lower Japanese military and civilian morale, and encourage surrender. Information was disseminated by radio and leaflet both to the Japanese mainland and to enemy forces hidden on Allied-occupied Pacific islands.

OWI was manned by civilians and supported by military liaison personnel. The Director, Elmer Davis, reported to Secretary of State James Byrnes. Policy decisions were subject to the approval of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, coordinated by Secretary of War Henry Stimson. Edward Barrett managed the Overseas Branch; Bradford Smith was chief of Central Pacific Operations in Honolulu; and Richard Hubert headed the forward area on Saipan.

OWI monitored Radio Tokyo broadcasts through its offices in San Francisco, where they were summarized and relayed to Washington. Response and new copy were composed and coded in Washington, then relayed through Honolulu to OWI's printing presses and radio station on Saipan.

OWI bombarded Japan with radio messages through its 50,000-watt standard-wave station on Saipan, Radio KSAI. The station also picked up 100,000-watt shortwave transmissions from the OWI station in Honolulu and relayed them to Japan. KSAI radio transmissions served many purposes: to Japan's civilian government, they were a vital source of news, received at a time when the fanaticism of the Japanese militarists denied civilian leaders access to information about the status of the war; to hidden Japanese soldiers on occupied Pacific islands, they tempted surrender by promising fair treatment as prisoners of war; and to Allied flight crews, the around-the-clock OWI radio transmissions beamed home the B-29s, saving planes and lives.

White Propaganda

"I Surrender" leaflet was later replaced by "I Cease Resistance"

The American forces fighting in Guadalcanal in 1942 made use of a limited number of OWI morale and surrender leaflets. There was a still a general belief at that time that the Japanese would not surrender, and a tendency on the part of the Americans to shoot those attempting to do so. A great deal of research went into the eventual preparation of an acceptable surrender leaflet and the training of the U.S. troops about the importance of taking prisoners for intelligence purposes. Surrender leaflets were used again in the Aleutian Islands in 1943 with little result.

Kiri Leaf Leaflets

One of the more unusual leaflets was dropped on Japanese troops in the Aleutian Islands. This leaflet shown above, is a very realistic looking "kiri" tree leaflet . The United States prepared and dropped these leaflets on the Japanese in 1943 and 1944. The early fall of the kiri tree leaves is considered a bad omen in Japan. In June 1942, Japanese forces occupied the islands of Attu, Agattu, and Kiska. Attu was recaptured by the U.S. Army Seventh Infantry Division in May 1943. The battle to reclaim Attu lasted three weeks. 2,351 Japanese soldiers were found dead; only 28 surrendered. 549 out of 15,000 US soldiers were killed; 1,100 were wounded. The American Air Force regularly bombed and leafleted the Japanese garrisons. 60,000 of the kiri leaflets were dropped over Attu and Kiska before troops landed on Attu in May 1943.

The color of the leaflet is an autumn brown and the text is in a black or a white tablet surrounded by a green border in the center of the leaf. Text on the front of the leaflet is:

The kiri leaf falls. Its fall is the ill omen of the inevitable downfall of militarism. With the fall of one kiri leaf come sadness and bad luck.

Text on the back of the leaflet is:

Before fall comes again the raining bombs of America, just like the kiri leave fluttering to the ground, will bring sad fate and misfortune.

Click here for more information and examples of leaf shaped leaflets used in different conflicts.

In the Southwest Pacific, FELO was assigned a mission identical to that of the SHAEF PWD, to "direct psychological warfare (Psywar) against the Japanese and the indigenous inhabitants of the area." MacArthur banned the OSS from his area of command and there are arguments about that action until this day. Most historians agree that he simply did not want a group of uncontrollable civilians mucking about in his area of responsibility.

Brigadier General Charles A. Willoughby, SWPA intelligence chief, later claimed that MacArthur, in the midst of a shooting war, could not afford to wait for the new OSS to establish itself in the theater. MacArthur and his staff were apparently suspicious of semi-autonomous agencies with a separate chain of command back to Washington, and they also believed themselves to be quite capable of handling special operations in the Philippines without any help from the OSS.

The OWI was allowed to prepare "white leaflets’ for SWPA, but no representatives were at headquarters. OWI was simply to plan and print leaflets as requested. The SWPA PSYOP Chief was General Bonner E. Fellers. Al Paddock says in U.S. Army Special Warfare - Its Origins, revised edition, University of Kansas Press, KS, 2002, "Fellers, a 1918 West Point graduate, was one of a very few U.S. senior officers in the Pacific who had actually studied the Japanese military in some depth prior to the war. His "Basic Military Plan for Psychological Warfare in the Southwest Pacific Area," completed in August 1944, provided the Psychological Warfare Branch with its organizational structure, goals, and operating procedures. Fellers believed that the purpose of psychological warfare was 'to further the military effort by weakening the fighting spirit of the enemy and thus hasten Japan's decision to surrender'."

In his "Foreword to the Basic Military Plan for Psychological Warfare in the Southwest Pacific Area" he wrote:

All commanders realize the importance of high morale as a major factor in military success. To lower morale in an enemy army is as vital a mission as to establish and maintain high morale among our own troops.

A soundly conceived, effectively executed campaign of psychological warfare is as basic a part of any modern military operation as are tactics and logistics.

Enemy armies are comprised of soldiers who are individuals - people. What these people think and believe governs what they do, how well they fight and how long they fight. The mental attitudes of enemy civilians likewise have a direct and important bearing on the duration of the war and a close relationship to the fighting effectiveness of enemy troops.

Psychological warfare is the MILITARY application of the science, which analyzes, predicts and influences the behavior of people. In this theater, it includes all activity directed against Japan except guerilla and orthodox warfare and physical sabotage.

A properly directed psychological warfare program in the Far East could achieve objectives of far reaching consequence. A stubborn China, the heroic resistance of the Philippine people, and the stupidity of the Japanese aggressors prevented a racial war. Only by winning the peace can we avert a future racial war.

The favorable reaction of Oriental peoples to invading forces from the West is dependent upon a clear understanding of Western tolerance and liberalism. It is a responsibility of psychological warfare agencies to inform Oriental peoples of the idealistic and unselfish purposes of our war aims. Establishment of mutual respect and trust between Occidental and Oriental peoples presents to psychological warfare agencies a challenge of the highest order.

Allison B Gilmore says in You Can't Fight Tanks With Bayonets, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE, 1998:

Feller's 'Basic Military Plan' established three functional divisions with PWB: the Collation Section, The Planning Department, and the Production Section. Situated between these three sections and the Office of the Military Secretary in the chain of command was the executive officer, COL J. Woodall Greene. As executive officer, Greene implemented Feller's plans and policies, supervised administration, and coordinated the work of the three section chiefs and the field units. He also comprised the 'Weekly Military Plan for Psychological Warfare' designed to achieve the organization's objectives in light of the changing military situation. Each week's plan was submitted to Fellers for his approval, then distributed to the Collation, Planning and Production divisions to insure a coordinated effort.

Layout Leaflet Design

The Collation Section studied intelligence reports from all over the Asia and the Pacific and identified Japanese vulnerabilities and ways to exploit them. Planning prepared the psywar operations. It schedules leaflets drops, newspaper publication and radio broadcasts. They forwarded weekly directives to Production where the newscasts, leaflets. newsletters, and magazines were actually produced.

Carl Berger mentions the Philippine campaign in An Introduction to Wartime leaflets, The American University Special Operations Research Office, Washington D.C., 1959. He says:

On 11 September 1944 the G2 (Intelligence section) of the Sixth Army, which had been designated to make the invasion, drew up a detailed "Basic Sixth Army Plan for Psychological Warfare".

Later, Berger concludes:

Between October 1944 and January 1945, when organized resistance on Leyte practically came to an end, an estimated 20,000,000 leaflets had been distributed throughout the islands. In January, Sixth Army moved onto the main island of Luzon... In a six month period an estimated 28,500,000 leaflets were disseminated over the island.

There was also a Basic Military Plan for Psychological Warfare Against Japan prepared by the Joint Chief of Staffs. This plan included the following objectives or themes:

Undermine morale by convincing the Japanese that:

Military defeat is inevitable. Their land and air forces are inadequate; their tactics and equipment inferior; their fleet impotent.

Their country is blockaded; their Pan-Asian dream is dead.

Their country is divided. Disunity exists among the army, navy and air forces; between the civil and military population; and between officers and enlisted men.

Continuation of the war will destroy Japan.

Charge the military clique with the responsibility of the war:

Cite their incompetence in foreign affairs and on the home and fighting fronts.

Prove that they have lied and are still lying about the war.

Explain the exploitation of racial prejudice.

Show the misrepresentation of Western people.

Charge them with the responsibility for national disaster.

Drive a wedge between the Emperor and the people on one hand, and the military clique on the other.

Encourage the people to:

Seek self-preservation.

Rally to save what is left of their country.

Destroy the military clique and form a peace government.

Throw themselves on the mercy of the United States.

Sue for peace on our terms.

Propaganda Overprinted Japanese Invasion Money

Not only did the United States forge Japanese currency, but the U. S. Sixth Army in the Philippines also overprinted captured Japanese currency with the text: THE CO-PROSPERITY SPHERE: WHAT IS IT WORTH? The notes were originally overprinted in Tacloban in December 1944 under General Fellers, coded 10F6 and dropped by the Fifth Air Force over Manila and Central Luzon. A military document states that the notes were "To impress on the Filipino people the worthlessness of Japanese occupation currency, with consequential embarrassment and loss of face to the Japanese."

Stanley Sandler lists the "10 basic rules" of psychological warfare adopted by FELO in Cease Resistance: It’s Good for you!: A history of U.S. Army Combat Psychological Operations, 1999:

1. Be Paternal but not cold.
2. Avoid a superior attitude.
3. Do not offend or humiliate the enemy.
4. Avoid boasting.
5. Never blame the psywar recipients for the war.
6. Never corner the enemy without showing a way out.
7. Iterate that death is not the natural destiny of the Japanese soldier.
8. Be sincere.
9. Encourage psywar targets to draw their own conclusions.
10. Show that Japan could have a bright postwar future.

The first FELO leaflet was dropped in 1942, and told of the Japanese defeat at the battle of the Coral Sea. FELO dropped another 45 Japanese-language leaflets by the end of 1942. By the middle of 1943 they had dropped over three million leaflets.

Australian Leaflet written in Pidgun English

Beneath the seal of Australia this leaflet says in Pidgun English:

To all people under Japanese Rule

Pay attention to this card. Give it to other natives in this area. Leave the Japanese and come join us. We will not hold anything against you.

The Government

Note: Pidgun is an auxiliary language, generally of a hybrid and partially developed nature that is employed over an extensive area by people speaking different and mutually unintelligible tongues in order to communicate with one another. It has a simplified grammar and a restricted, often polyglot vocabulary.

During the period 1942 to 1945, sixty-nine million items were printed by FELO in 14 languages and dialects. These leaflets were prepared in English before translation by native speakers, including some Japanese POWs. Leaflets were then printed in Australia, often in numbers of tens or hundreds of thousands, before they were distributed by aircraft over occupied areas. These were distributed through air-drops or by shell canisters, primarily over the Japanese Army or villages of native peoples. FELO employed a large number of language interpreters, particularly for Japanese, but also in the languages of Southeast Asia, so that the documents could be read by their intended audiences. Japanese prisoners-of-war were also co-opted for this purpose if they passed security checks.

Native peoples were another FELO target as it was vital to keep their support for Allied forces. Pamphlets were dropped telling them to keep clear of certain areas where there might be danger, for example.

In the China-Burma-Indian theater of operations (CBI), the OWI Assam Psychological Warfare team (PWT) team based at Ledo in India began operating in fall 1943. After a rough start, U.S. Nisei proved invaluable in the writing of leaflets and newssheets. They published a number of newspapers, including Gunjin Shimbun and Senjin News.

Other newspapers were being produced in Saipan. Josette H. Williams says:

At the same time, newspapers and leaflets in the Japanese language were printed on Saipan. From there, Air Force B-29s flying at 20,000 feet dropped 500-pound M-16 fire bomb containers converted into leaflet casings. These opened at 4,000 feet to deploy millions of leaflets, effectively covering a whole Japanese city with information. In just the last three months of formal psychological warfare, OWI produced and deployed over 63 million leaflets informing the Japanese people of the true status of the war and providing advance warning to 35 cities targeted for destruction.

Japanese soldiers surrender holding Safe Conduct leaflets

By August of 1943 Japanese official documents begin to mention U.S. PSYOP becoming more efficient and dangerous. As mentioned earlier, PWB was authorized and assumed the FELO duties in June 1944.

The first large-scale use of PSYOP in the Pacific was the Okinawa campaign. PWB printed more than six million leaflets to be dropped on Japanese troops and Okinawan civilians. Loudspeaker teams were used in depth. The result was the surrender of 11,409 prisoners of war. Fifth Fleet carrier planes dropped some five million leaflets on the island. The psychological warfare teams' immediate objective was to depress Japanese morale so that the enemy soldiers would surrender rather than resist. The long-range goal was more ambitious: to promote the idea that Okinawans were ethnically and culturally different from the home island Japanese. The leaflets told the Japanese soldier why and how should surrender and the Okinawan citizens not to be afraid, for they were not regarded as the enemy.

General MacArthur's PSYOP staff prepared a great number of leaflets for the Philippine campaign. There were close to 200 different leaflets in the "J1" series. Examples are 6J1 (Abandoned), 25J1 (I cease resistance), and 159J1 (Surrender order, 38th Division, Southern Luzon, signed by Colonel Kobayashi).

The US 6th Army used leaflets coded "J6." Examples are 1J6 (Germany surrenders), 33J6 (Manila Falls), and 103J6 (Japanese officers, please read this).

The US VIII Corps used leaflets with the code "J8."

The Rakkasan Nyuso (parachute news) was published from about March to August 1945.

Once the United States military accepted the premise of psychological operations in the pacific, they proceeded to prepare millions of leaflets and other printed material.

Some U.S. Leaflets to Formosa were coded "F," for example 1F01 (The future of Formosa). Other US leaflet codes are listed below. In general the last letter "A" indicates an appeal, the letter "G" indicates a gift, the letter "M" indicates a morale leaflet, the letter "N" indicates a newspaper, and the letter "P" indicates a pictorial publication.

AB - Japan
AFA, AFN - Annamese in Indochina
CA, CM - China
CBA, CBM, CBN, CBP, CBG - Burma
CTA, CTM, CTN, CTP - Thailand
SSU - Sumatra
TA- Taiwan
X, XN, XP - Okinawa (SWPA-PWB)
XA, XShM - Shans in Burma (OWI-PWT)
XJM, XJNL - CBI
XKAM, XKanN, XKN, XNL - Kachins in Burma.

US Army White Operations

In general, the leaflets with "alpha" characters are Army and the leaflets that are strictly numerical are Navy. Having said that, it is important to understand that there was a lot of mixing and some of the same leaflets appear with either Army or Navy codes. In fact, since Navy aircraft delivered the great majority of the leaflets dropped on the Japanese defending fortified islands, a case could be made that they are all part Navy.

“Jap in the Boat” - 2-J-1

One of the earliest Army leaflets dropped on Japanese troops is 2-J-1 entitled “Jap in the Boat.” The leaflet depicts an unhappy Japanese soldier alone in a rowboat near a barren island. Text on the front is:

Left Behind With Only Small Boats, an Army Chokes With Grief:

The back is all text and says in part:

Soldiers and Officers of Japan.

We wish neither to insult nor make fun of you. Because at Bataan and Corregidor we faced the same miserable conditions you are now facing, we cannot but sympathize with you…

Where are the ships that brought you and your supplies here? Where is the Navy which escorted your transports?

When ships can no longer reach an island garrison, do you not realize for the first time that the island has been abandoned?

Lonely Japan - 5-J-1

Leaflet 5-J-1 depicts the lonely position of Japan, attacked from every direction as its allies Germany and Italy fade away. This is an excellent image and even an illiterate could understand that the attacks are coming from every direction and Japan is helpless to resist. I should mention that when Italy capitulated, many Germans were happy, glad to be rid of what they considered a weak and needy ally. It would be interesting to know if the Japanese considered the loss of their allies an asset or a liability. The text on the front is:

What Can be Done Against Overwhelming Odds?

Text on the back says in part:

When Germany and Italy are Gone?

…The leaders knew very well that if they alone embarked on a war against both England and America, there was no chance of victory.

For this very reason they went into an adventurous military alliance with Germany and Italy. They thought that while Germany and Italy were fighting the Allies, drawing enemy strength to Europe, the enemy strength opposing Japan would be very small.

But what has happened? Italy crumbled some time ago and Allied troops are on German soil.

Japan now faces a crisis, in which the full strength of the Allied nations will soon be concentrated against her. Does she not feel lonely?

Abandoned - 6-J-1

Army leaflet 6-J-1 depicts a lone Japanese soldier standing on a small island looking into the distance. Text to the right of the soldier asks: "Where are the ships and planes? What is going to happen to you? Text on the back is:

General MacArthur, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces in the South pacific, recently paid high tribute to the brave actions of the Japanese soldier:

We cannot help giving our sympathy to you promising Japanese soldiers who have been forced into such miserable conditions as today's. Your wild eagles, upon whom you depended so much, hardly show their faces, leaving you unprotected against the never-ending bombing of our air force.

The Japanese Navy is withdrawing its ships from their bases and U.S. troops are successively pouring into the Japanese naval bases. As a result, you are cut off from supplies and reinforcements and now you cannot even expect to be evacuated.

If you attempt to establish yourself in the mountains and make a last stand there, all that can happen is that disease will eat your flesh and hunger gnaw your bones, and your plight becomes worse and worse. Your comrades-in-arms, who were left behind in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea, died hoping that friendly ships and airplanes might come to their rescue.

Why must you die a futile death with this vain hope in your hearts?

Japan's Life Line - 10-J-1

This is one of the most intriguing U.S. Army leaflets to the Japanese. It depicts General MacArthur on the Philippines and Admiral Nimitz on an aircraft carrier pulling on a rope that strangles the lifeline to Japan.

There were major egos among these Allied leaders and they were both very jealous of their power and prestige. It must have taken a really good argument on the part of some PWB propagandists to get them both to approve this leaflet. The text is:

Key to the outcome of the war.

The Domei News Agency stated on November 7, 1944:

The Japanese loss of Leyte will disrupt sea lane transportation of our vessels to the Southern Regions, and will endanger the transportation of our various raw materials from the Southern Regions to the Homeland." Just how accurate was this prediction is shown by the successive military developments themselves.

The entire strength of the army, navy, and air force under General MacArthur and Admiral Nimitz is now able to operate freely from the newly captured bases in the Philippines. The sea route which connects the homeland of Japan and the Southern regions is gradually being compressed.

The day is not far off when this sea route, which is called the life-line, will be cut; and Japanese shipping will be halted. There will soon be a shortage of airplane fuel. The supply of rubber, tin, and other vital supplies needed for the implements of war will soon be in short supply.

No matter how strong a soldier may be, when even the very supply lines cannot be protected, how can he satisfactory perform his task? Note that the leaflet is careful not to attack the Japanese soldier. It implies that even with his fighting spirit he cannot be expected to win against the superior war materials of the Allied powers. It allows him to consider surrender while saving "face.

Soldiers of Japan - 22-J-1

Another Army leaflet to the Philippines is 22-J-1. It depicts a lone Japanese soldier standing on a beach watching a ferocious fight in the distance with an island in flames. The text is:

Soldiers of Japan:

You fought hard and courageously, yet within three months after the Americans landed in the Philippines they had advanced to the very heart of the islands – Manila. It is obvious that support and reinforcements have failed you, and you have been forced into fighting against hopeless odds.

Why is this?

Isn’t it because the large forces of Japanese troops in the Southern Region have been out-maneuvered, immobilized, and rendered useless? And this because Japan had completely lost control of the Sea and Air.

These large by-passed garrisons look on idly, like men watching fires across the river, while you fight your Waterloo (Sekagihara – decisive battle). No need to tell you that these troops have become ineffective as a fighting force, and their isolation will seriously affect the future conduct of the war.

Is it not another blunder on the part of your military leaders who by blunder after blunder, have brought Japan to the very brink of disaster?

Peace has come in Europe - Leaflet 28-J-1

Leaflet 28-J-1 announced that the war in Europe had ended and peace had returned to war torn Europe. The intention was to create nostalgia in the minds of the Japanese who are continuing to feel the destruction and privation of war. The text on the front of the leaflet reads: Peace has come in Europe. The text on the back of the leaflet reads:

The greatest European war in history, which turned the continent into a scene of carnage, is now over. The bells of peace are ringing far and wide.

The day is not far off when the soldiers, who have grown gaunt with hunger and disease in the front line and smoke of battle, will return to their own peaceful homes longed for these many years. They will enjoy the great happiness of reunion with their families.

The stain of carnage will disappear, and soon with the time of the budding spring foliage will come to the fields, hills, and villages.

The dawn of a new era has come to them at last!

War has passed Luzon - 101-J-1

The front of leaflet 101-J-1 shows a map of Formosa, Ryukyu Islands and Japan under bombing attack. The text on the reverse is:

To Japanese Soldiers - As you know, Japanese soldiers in the Philippines have withdrawn to the mountains. You too are in this situation and the Battle of Luzon is almost over.

The US Army, with strong fighting spirit is continuing to bomb the Japanese homeland. All parts of Formosa are daily bomb targets, while the military installations in Tokyo, Nagoya, Kobe and all large cities are exposed to bomb attacks. Iwo Jima is in American hands and the US Army is fighting fiercely to occupy Okinawa. That island’s capture is a matter of time.

The war has already moved from the Philippines to the Japanese homeland. You have been left to your fate. If you doubt this, think over what appears below.

Where are the planes that were to come to your assistance and what are they doing? Have you even seen a single plane bearing the Rising Sun fly over?

Where is the Japanese Navy that boasted only last spring that it would destroy the US Navy? What has it done? Some time ago, the Japanese fleet was bombed in the Inland Sea by the American air force.

Do not let your officers mislead you. For the sake of Japan’s future think about living in order to build a peaceful country after the war.

It is your duty to consider the future of your country and to make every effort to prolong life for your beloved ancestral land.

Early in the war the Japanese had asked the Americans on Bataan and Corregidor, "Where is your fleet?" and "Where are your promised reinforcements?"

The Americans return the favor in the late stages of the war in the Pacific. Note also that the United States used the same type of message in Europe, asking the German troops: Where is your air force?

113-J-1

Leaflet 113-J-1 was designed for use against Japanese troops anywhere. The text on the front asks the question: "Who will rebuild Japan?". The picture shows a riveter working on a building, with other new buildings among the ruins in the background. The text on the back of the leaflet is:

War Reaches Japanese Heartland

Japan’s great cities are being heavily bombed from bases on the Pacific Islands and on Okinawa. The industrial districts of Tokyo, Nagoya, and Kobe are being devastated. Great areas in these once flourishing cities have been reduced to ashes,

It is sad that the exigencies of war mean that the US air raids will increase in fury with each day until the selfish militarists have been destroyed.

The Japanese militarists alone are responsible for Japan’s present misery. It is they and not the Japanese people at whom the attacks are directed. On the day when the militarists are crushed and peace returns under a modern government, will you not be needed for the great work of rebuilding Japan?

Japanese Navy and Air Force Powerless - 134-J-1

The official title of U.S. Army Psychological Warfare Branch Leaflet coded 134-J-1 is: Japanese Navy and Air Force Powerless. The target is the Japanese homeland. The leaflet depicts a Japanese city with the shadow of a U.S. B-29 upon it. One wing of the aircraft is visible in the upper left-hand corner. The text on the back is:

Boasting that their defense was an iron wall, the militarists asserted that the Japanese Navy and Air Force would annihilate all who attacked the homeland.

Today, those militarists stand powerless while the U.S. Navy and Air Force attack Japan at will and with increasing fury.
It is clear that the Japanese Navy and Air Force cannot defend the homeland. It is also clear that the militarists whose so-called defense was merely an empty word, are not worthy to be leaders.

The full force of the American attack has not yet been felt. When it comes, the destruction will be pitiless and complete.

The militarists cannot save Japan by their boasts, but the people can save their country by unconditional surrender.

Pilot Blood Chits

Other Army leaflets used on the mainland were often in the form of "blood chits," and "pointee-talkee" leaflets that showed the Chinese or other native populations how to rescue American aviators and return them to friendly forces. There were literally dozens of such leaflets.

Americans will never forget -CA-114

CA-114 depicts a farmer bringing an American pilot into his hut as a smiling wife prepares a meal. The text on the front is, Americans will never forget the people who helped them. At the lower left a blood chit is shown in full color with the text, Recognize the American flag.

Plant Melons - CA-115b

This leaflet depicts an American aviator opening his flight jacket to show a Chinese farmer his "blood chit" in the form of an American flag. Text on the front is: Plant melons and harvest melons, plant peas and harvest peas. This is similar to the Biblical proverb: As ye sow shall you reap. Text on the back explains that by doing the simple good deed of returning an American pilot to friendly forces the civilians will be richly rewarded. In addition, text at the bottom of the leaflet is: Please notice this symbol with an arrow pointing to the China-Burma-India (CBI) Theater of War insignia.

Plant Melons II - CA-117

This leaflet to the Chinese depicts an American aviator being carried in a sling by two Chinese civilians. Symbols of the American Air Force and the (CBI) are depicted in full color with the text, "Identify clearly these American military insignia." Text on the front is once again, "Plant melons and harvest melons, plant peas and harvest peas."

144-J-1

U.S. Army leaflet 144-J-1 was dropped in 1945 and depicts a giant Soviet soldier greeting a giant American soldier over the tiny nation of Japan. The title is “Red Army Strikes.” There is a long propaganda message on the back pointing out that Germany has surrendered, and now both the United States and the Soviet Union can turn their combined military might on Japan

Many of the leaflets dropped on Japan depicted B-29 Super Fortresses, B-17s or B-24s dropping bombs.

WARNING! - 150-J-1

The newspaper Free Philippines of 31 July 1945 talks about one version of this leaflet, a Psychological Warfare Branch, U.S. Army Forces Pacific Area product coded 150-J-1. This is a "directive leaflet," one that gives orders, instructions, and directives to the target audience. The article states:

Leaflets Will Give Jap Cities 72-Hour Notice of Air Assault.

Leaflets soon will rain on Japan, warning civilians that their home cities will be subjected to large-scale air-raids within 72 hours, Psychological Warfare Branch of General Macarthur's Headquarters has announced.

Leaflets will be dropped by planes of General George C. Kenney's Far East Air Forces.

Lt. Colonel J. W. Greene, executive officer of PWB, said: "The new warning program is part of the truth campaign started by the branch some time ago, which has produced excellent results. Furthermore, the appearance of the leaflets, followed by a raid in force, in each case in clock-like regularity will demonstrate to the people of Japan that their army and navy air forces are impotent to stop us, even when they know exactly when and where we are coming."

The leaflet shows a white bomb-burst on a red and black background. The center of the burst states "This city is the next target of the United States Army Air Force."

On the reverse side the message is amplified, informing Japanese that doom is coming in 72 hours.

The Japanese are warned: "As you can see, your military force is powerless to stop us... This destruction will continue so long as the people follow the militarists."

Japanese are advised to turn away from the militarists and endeavor to save what is left of Japan, and urged "to evacuate the city at once."

Carl Berger mentions the leaflet in more detail in An Introduction to Wartime Leaflets. He says:

During the summer of 1945, prior to B-29 attacks on Japanese cities, American aircraft dropped hundreds of thousands of warning leaflets bearing the heading: "Civilians! Evacuate at once!" and the following text:

These leaflets are being dropped to notify you that your city has been listed for destruction by our powerful air force. The bombing will begin within 72 hours.

This advance notice will give your military authorities ample time to take necessary defensive measures to protect you from the inevitable attack. Watch and see how powerless they are to protect you.
We give the military clique this notification of our plans because we know there is nothing they can do to stop our overwhelming power and our iron determination. We want you to see how powerless the military is to protect you.

Systematic destruction of city after city will continue as long as you blindly follow your military leaders whose blunders have placed you on the very brink of oblivion. It is your responsibility to overthrow the military government now and save what is left of your beautiful nation.

In the meanwhile, we urge all civilians to evacuate at once.

Berger adds that the leaflets were very effective and after the war Japanese officials stated, "The military had no time to prepare special defenses and practically all persons rushed out of town."

The leaflets were so successful that during the Korean War similar leaflets warned the North Koreans in February 1953 of cities and military targets to be bombed during a U.N. operation called "Plan Strike." During the 1990-1991 Persian Gulf War, Coalition forces dropped leaflets warning specific Iraqi infantry divisions that they were about to be bombed by B-52s. It is believed that there were mass defections in these units before the bombings occurred.

B-29 Cities Leaflet

The most famous leaflet showed a flight of five B-29s dropping bombs and a number of Japanese cities printed in small circles below. The Army Air Force dropped this leaflet on numerous occasions. For instance, on one raid 700,000 were dropped by the 73rd Bomb Wing on several Japanese cities on the night of 27-28 July 1945. Text on the back is:

ATTENTION JAPANESE PEOPLE.

Read this carefully as it may save your life or the life of a relative or a friend. In the next few days, four or more of the cities named on the reverse side of this leaflet will be destroyed by American bombs. These cities contain military installations and workshops or factories, which produce military goods. We are determined to destroy all of the tools of the military clique that they are using to prolong this useless war. Unfortunately, bombs have no eyes . So, in accordance with America's well-known humanitarian policies, the American Air Force, which does not wish to injure innocent people, now gives you warning to evacuate the cities named and save your lives.

America is not fighting the Japanese people but is fighting the military clique, which has enslaved the Japanese people. The peace, which America will bring, will free the people from the oppression of the Japanese military clique, mean the emergence of a new, and better Japan.

You can restore peace by demanding new and better leaders who will end the War.

We cannot promise that only these cities will be among those attacked, but at least four will be, so heed this warning and evacuate these cities immediately.

B-29 Cities Leaflet

This leaflet was prepared in two different formats. In one, the cities are depicted in circles at the bottom of the leaflet. General Curtis LeMay actually requested this leaflet. The very first leaflet had twelve cities listed, but a last minute deletion of ‘Tokyo” left just eleven cities. After the correction, 886,000 leaflets with the appended text were printed. A second printing of 568,000 leaflets on 30 July 1945 had twelve target cities. B-29 bombers immediately dropped them. On 3 August, a third leaflet with another twelve cities was printed and 600,000 dropped.

In a second version of the leaflet, the cities were listed in a box at the lower right. The second (box type) leaflet is illustrated in United States Pacific Fleet and Pacific Areas Psychological Warfare, Part Two, Supplement No. 2, CINCPAC - CINCPOA Bulletin No. 164-45, 15 August 1945. It is coded 2106A. Text at the left of the vignette is, "NOTICE BOARD." The purpose of the leaflet is "To inspire fear in the Japanese people by informing them of the cities we intend to destroy, thereby making it clear by inference that the Japanese air force is impotent and that we are masters of the skies over Japan." The text on the back of the leaflet is identical in both versions.

Colonel Robert L. Gleason discusses this operation in “Psychological Operations and Air Power: Its Hits and Misses,” Air University Review, March-April 1971:

Most people are generally familiar with the extensive fire bombing of Japan during the spring of 1945. Many are less aware of the equally extensive psywar campaign carried on concurrently. In fact, the psywar mission was included in the Joint Chiefs of Staff directive to the Twentieth Air Force not only to inflict physical destruction on Japan but also to “undermine the morale of the Japanese people to where their capacity is decisively defeated.”This psychological warfare campaign, launched by General LeMay and later taken over and run by Headquarters Commander-in-Chief, Pacific, started with leaflets dropped by the bombers along with their bomb loads. Later the campaign became considerably more sophisticated, and leaflets were dropped on separate missions preceding the bombing raids by a day or two. These leaflets would name about ten towns in Japan and state that a number of them would be bombed and that the people should evacuate the area. We could afford to bomb only a few of the towns listed, but the uncertainty and fear of the unknown created a severe mental strain on all the cities involved. As reported by the U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey (USSBS) following the war, this psychological operation was most effective. At the height of the campaign, more than 8� million Japanese were involved in evacuating their cities—many from cities never touched.

At the end of the war, W. D. Conde of the U. S. Civil Information and Education Section ordered a number of uncooperative Japanese "thought control" officials to the Radio Tokyo Building where they were questioned about the effectiveness of the American OWI leaflets. Many of the individuals had been dismissed from their government job in accordance with the American Supreme Commander's directive. At least fourteen Japanese agencies dealt with Allied psychological warfare material. None of the individuals had notes and all make their comments directly from memory. The individual comments were very similar which indicates either collusion, or that they were telling the truth and were of the same opinion.

The LeMay bomb-warning leaflet was the most effective single piece of American propaganda dropped on Japan according to Mr. Kawagucki of the Home Ministry.

Sukohido Kabayama of the Foreign Office also cited the air raid leaflet as the most threatening. He said that in Hachioji, the military had no time to prepare special defenses and all factory work came to an immediate halt as all the workers rushed out of town.

Masjiro Kawaguchi, Chief of the Foreign Affairs Bureau of the Home Ministry said, “The warning leaflets dropped in advance of raids were very effective because we could not take counter measures against them.” He later forwarded a report that added, “The people were seized with fear by the leaflets announcing the air attacks beforehand. The city that was warned was surely attacked and destroyed within a few days after the announcement.”

A report of the Foreign Section of the Home Ministry agrees, “In view of the fact that the cities that received the notice were reduced to ashes within ten days, the citizens of the cities were considerably frightened.”

A report of the Foreign Section of the Home Ministry adds, “Those leaflets saying that American planes aimed at military plants and advising people to evacuate soon from the vicinity of them were effective, and some workmen of those plants were terrified of the air raids…The leaflet shocked us and had a great psychological effect in general. The inhabitants of cities were driven by fear. In Akita Prefecture they removed their household furnishings to the outskirts of the cities."

A departmental ordinance decreed that the Japanese people collect and turn in Allied leaflets. Those who disobeyed faced a sentence of up to three months in jail and a fine of up to 100 yen. The government did not fear the American propaganda and expected each citizen to do his duty to his Emperor and his nation. It seems therefore, that there was no great enforcement of the ordinance. There were less than a dozen people actually arrested for carrying and reading leaflets, and all apparently received reprimands with no incarceration.

There is some documentation that shows that the pilots were very unhappy about dropping warning leaflets pointing out future bombing targets. They felt that the Japanese would be able to build up the air defenses around those named cities. However, General Curtis LeMay was able to convince them of the long-term psychological advantages of the campaign. At the same time, the OWI radio on Saipan increased its power to broadcast the same message to the Japanese people.

General MacArthur was not universally loved by his own men. There was some resentment against his following the direct order of President Roosevelt to leave his command in the Philippines and relocate his headquarters to Australia.

The Philippine people loved the general, and apparently he loved them with equal intensity. Upon reaching Australia he said:

The President of the United States ordered me to break through the Japanese lines and proceed from Corregidor to Australia for the purpose, as I understand it, of organizing the American offensive against Japan, a primary object of which is the relief of the Philippines. I came through and I shall return.

Although the words "I shall return" were attacked by the general's enemies as proof of his ego, and the OWI wanted to change the words to "We shall return," MacArthur stood firm. Carlos Romulo defended the phrase. He said:

America has let us down and won't be trusted, but the people still have trust in MacArthur. If he says he is coming back, he will be believed.

Matchbook

Signal Mirror

Pack of Cigarettes

MG Courtney Whitney explains how these three words became one of the most famous propaganda campaigns in history. He says:

On 10 August 1943 I proposed that various items known to be scarce in the Philippines, such as cigarettes, matches, chewing gum, candy bars, sewing kits, and pencils be sent to the islands by submarine in great quantity for widespread distribution. Each package would bear the crossed American and Philippine flags on one side, and on the other the quotation "I shall return" printed over a facsimile of MacArthur's signature.

Millions of such items were distributed in the Philippines and the words were printed on walls or placed wherever the people and the Japanese might see them. This was the equal of the "V" for victory campaign waged in occupied Europe.

US Navy White Operations

Many of the Navy propaganda leaflets were archived in classified "Confidential" booklets. A number of them exist. Examples are:

1. United States Pacific Fleet and Pacific Ocean Areas - Psychological Warfare Propaganda Material Part One, CINCPAC-CINCPOA, December 1944. This booklet sets forth the general principals, means, and methods of employing propaganda in the Pacific Theater. It is a 44-page instructional booklet.

2. United States Pacific Fleet and Pacific Ocean Areas - Psychological Warfare Propaganda Material Part Two, CINCPAC-CINCPOA, December 1944. This booklet contains 167 samples of psychological warfare leaflets and newspapers prepared prior to the date of publication starting with leaflet 100 and ending with 2049.

3. United States Pacific Fleet and Pacific Ocean Areas - Psychological Warfare, Part Two, Supplement No.1 CINCPAC-CINCPOA Bulletin No. 164-45, 14 July 1945. This booklet contains 54 leaflets, staring with 115 and ending with 2102.

4. United States Pacific Fleet and Pacific Ocean Areas - Psychological Warfare, Part Two, Supplement No. 2, CINCPAC-CINCPOA Bulletin No. 164-45, 15 August 1945. This booklet contains 57 leaflets, staring with 113 and ending with 2118.

5. United States Pacific Fleet and Pacific Ocean Areas - Psychological Warfare, Part Two, Supplement No. 3, CINCPAC-CINCPOA Bulletin No. 164-45, 15 August 1945. Supplement 3 consists of two sections. The first contains copies of all newspaper and newssheets with translations distributed after 1 June 1944. The second contains copies of all newspapers without translation printed prior to 1 June 1945. The booklet I studied contains 48 newspapers, staring with 2514 and ending with 4513.

6. Outpost Service Bureau Notes on Courses I & II, Far East Training Program, Office of War Information, San Francisco 1944. This is a series of lectures taught to the new OWI agents.

7. The OWI Saipan Operation – An account of operations on Saipan from 3 March 1945 to 15 February 1946 with notes on the period July 1944 to 2 March 1945.

Part One of Psychological Warfare breaks down the code numbers of the leaflets into categories and explains their themes. I have greatly edited the explanatory paragraphs. I also added some examples of the Leaflet titles in each category to show the reader the general concept of the U.S. propaganda.

a. 100-399. Leaflets bearing these numbers have been prepared for the period of bombardment of an entire tactical area, preliminary to any further action to be taken in that area.

100. Where is your navy?
109. Victory in the air?
116. Open your eyes.

b. 400-499. Leaflets bearing these numbers are designed for that period of intensive bombardment, usually by surface ships, just prior to the invasion.

405. To the Japanese soldier.
410. I raise my two hands to live for my country.
413. Civilians!

c. 500-699. Leaflets bearing these numbers are designed for that phase when the actual landings are made and the main engagement begins.

501. To Japanese officers!
503. You can't fight tanks with bayonets!
512. Full strength instead of 10%.

d. 800-999. Leaflets bearing these numbers should be used when resistance has been broken and only mopping-up remains.

808. Are you so determined to die that you won't listen to reason?
809. What are you fighting for?
810. Life-saving guarantee.

The pamphlets for by-passed garrisons are numbered serially from 1000-1099.

1001. Do you intend to continue to live like a beast in the jungle?
1006. Your island has been isolated and cut off from all aid and supplies.
1009. Instructions for negotiations.

It should be noted that although we call these Navy leaflets, they were prepared in partnership with the American Office of War Information with Pacific Headquarters in San Francisco, and a forward outpost on the Island of Saipan.

Leaflet 100

Leaflet 100 depicts a map of the entire western Pacific to include Japan, Australia, part of China and Southeast Asia. Two lines appear on the map, one in red, one in blue. The blue line depicts the furthest advances of the Japanese Empire, while the red line shows the current status of the war with Allied forces moving closer to the home islands. The lines visually prove that the Japanese Navy cannot protect the Empire and that Allied forces are advancing to within striking distance of Japan itself. Some of the demoralizing text is:

WHERE IS YOUR NAVY?

December 7 1941

November 1943 – Beginning of the American offensive!

The Gilbert Islands conquered by America November 20, 1943!

Saipan, Tinian and Guam conquered by America July 1944!

Is Japan next?

102 - Save the Nation by Saving Yourself

Leaflet 102 depicts the bound hands of a Japanese naval officer dripping with blood. The theme is that the only way to save Japan is to end the war. The text is:

Anyone can see that it is hopeless for Japan to fight against the whole world. The military leaders who were foolish enough to lead you into such a conflict will be punished.

But, if Japan is to survive and not destroy itself, the war most be ended before all the young and potent men are killed. Save the nation by saving yourself.

This is your most important duty right now.

Leaflet 103

Leaflet 103 is an early attempt to induce the Japanese to surrender by promising humane treatment and by citing past instances as proof of this claim. The leaflet is in black ink on white paper with a green border. The front depicts a group of United States Marines playing a game with Japanese prisoners. The faces of the Japanese have been partially blocked in an attempt to protect them and their families. It was later determined that the Japanese officers cited this masking as proof that the soldiers pictured were not really Japanese. Reacting to this counter-propaganda, later leaflets depicted the prisoner's face in full. There is no text on the front. Text on the back is:

Your leaders have told you so many false stories about American cruelty that you fear and hate us. You have apparently forgotten about America's aid to Japan during the great earthquake disaster of 1923, and the long tradition of American kindness and generosity.

Don't be deluded by falsehoods. Your soldiers who came over to us on Saipan, Tinian, and Guam received food, water, clothing, and medical treatment, and they are now safe and happy. When you cease fighting and come over to us, we will treat you the same way.

Leaflet 112

Leaflet 112 is a wonderful example of a divide and conquer leaflet. It is larger than most at 8 x 10 inches. The leaflet is in blue ink on a white background. It depicts two forlorn Japanese soldiers on guard near their machine gun watching two officers walk toward a Japanese aircraft, obviously about to escape being trapped on a besieged island. The purpose of the leaflet is to stir up resentment in the Japanese soldier toward his officers. The text is:

It seems rather strange to us that Japanese officers should be evacuated wherever possible, whereas ordinary soldiers are expected to remain behind and die. Such conduct is hardly consistent with Bushido, and surely your lives are as valuable to you as theirs are to them.

Recently, for example, the commander of the second fleet, together with several officers, was evacuated from Manokwari by plane and taken to Japan. He should have remained and led his men, but apparently officers of high rank act to please themselves. They preach Bushido to you, but they act upon different principals.

Is your life of so little value to you that you will throw it away in vain? A few minutes of thought should convince you otherwise!

Leaflet 408

Navy leaflet 408 depicts the Japanese Emperor Meiji. The text reminds the troops that until 1868 feudal lords controlled Japan. The leaflet indicates that the militarists are nothing more than the rebirth of the ancient feudal lords and have usurped the power of the Emperor and need not be followed. The text is:

When the powers of government were restored to the Emperor Meiji in 1868, Japan truly became a nation and the loyalty of all citizens was given to the Emperor.

Before that time, feudal lords controlled the country and every man gave loyalty to the Lord under whom he lived. The restoration of the Emperor corrected this unfortunate situation.

Recently Japan has returned to the error of the pre-Meiji days. Militarists have usurped the powers of government. The name of the Emperor is used, but in reality there is a new bakufu in control.

To fight for men who have involved the nation in a hopeless war is not true loyalty. Give your loyalty to the nation. Cease resistance – save the homeland.

The bakufu mentioned in the text can be translated as "tent government." It alludes to the time when feudal soldiers lived in tents and controlled Japan through a military governmental system. The Emperor still functioned, and his court appointed civil governors, collected tax, and controlled his capital, but the feudal lords informally ran the country through control of the military and police functions.

Leaflet 410

Leaflet 410 was designed to offer a positive course of action to Japanese troops who have been cut off, resulting in surrender rather than suicide. It paves the way for a future surrender. The leaflet depicts a Japanese soldier with his hands raised. The leaflet is printed in black on white paper, but red has been used to highlight the soldier and the text. Text at the right of the vignette is, "I raise my two hands to live for my country." Text on the back is:

CONSIDER WELL THESE FACTS

Allied victory in the global war is assured.

CONSIDER WELL THESE REASONS

The Allies are invading the homeland of Germany. The Allies are attacking the homeland of Japan.

THIS IS WHAT YOU SHOULD DO FOR JAPAN

Accept Allied protection until the war is over. You will be given medical treatment and food.
You will not be disgraced or abused.

The Allies wish to preserve mankind.

Further instructions will be given.

The threat of Japanese suicide was very real and the United States produced a great number of leaflets in an attempt to convince the Japanese soldier to live to return home. The Japanese warrior code stated that death in battle brought honor both to individual and to the nation. The preferred method of hara-kiri or seppuku is to stab yourself in the left abdomen and pull the knife across your stomach, disemboweling yourself. This should be done without showing any pain or emotion. Many Japanese would have a friend stand by with a sword and if they wavered their friend would do them the honor of beheading them before they expressed pain and dishonored themselves.

An Office of Strategic Services Interrogation dated 9 June 1944 mentions a Japanese officer explaining to his troops the way they should die rather than be captured in a situation where seppuku was impossible and time was of the essence:

Point your rifle under your chin. Place a stick in the trigger guard. Use both feet to force the stick down.

Release the safety pin of a hand grenade and place it close to your body.

Plunge your bayonet into your body.

It is very interesting to note that although the American propagandists tried to keep Japanese enlisted personnel from killing themselves, they had no reserve about urging Japanese officers to commit seppuku. Eleanor Sparagana says in her doctorial thesis entitled, The Conduct and Consequences of Psychological Warfare: American Psychological Warfare Operations in the War against Japan, 1941-1945:

Not all propaganda directed at the military sounded as compassionate as the anti-suicide appeals. One of the more hard-hearted and devious facets of the campaign consisted of inciting Japanese officers to perform seppuku when they failed in their military mission. The Allied reminded Japanese battle-level officers that, while they committed soldiers to commit hara-kiri instead of surrendering, their senior leaders, including Tojo, often failed to kill themselves after their failures in battle. One leaflet depicted a leader preparing to kill himself while kneeling beside a newspaper that chronicled his failure. Another leaflet pictured the traditional setting for seppuku and insisted: “It is time that the military leaders admitted their failures and obeyed the code which they demand that their followers obey. If they do not take that action the people should demand that they do so.”

Leaflet 503

Leaflet 503 depicts a Japanese soldier watching an American tank approach. There is no text on the front. I selected this leaflet because the title was used by Allison B. Gilmore in her book You Can't Fight Tanks with Bayonets - Psychological Warfare Against the Japanese Army in the Southwest Pacific. I have the book in my library so will honor her by showing the original leaflet. There is no text on the front. Text on the back is:

You can't fight tanks with bayonets!

You can't resist our naval and artillery fire by hiding!

You can't overcome sickness and wounds by ignoring them!

Come over to us and let us give you food, water and medical treatment. Neither your resistance nor death can accomplish anything.

The Gumbatsu mentioned in the text is a combinations of the militarists (sometimes called "the military clique"), industrialists (Later called the Zaibatsu), large land owners and political office holders. They had the real power and control over the Japanese people. The Allied used this term in a number of propaganda leaflets.

Leaflet 701

Navy leaflet 701 depicts two Japanese prisoners-of-war happily playing "Chinese checkers" in an American camp. The leaflet was specifically designed to create doubt in the soldier's mind about the wisdom of the "banzai charge" or suicide. The text is:

If you commit seppuku -

You will be the last of your family. You won't be able to carry on your line.

No good to you, to your family, or to Japan will come from such an act.

When the war is over soon, you won't be alive to enjoy peace and happiness. If you come over to us -

You will not be harmed, but will be given good food, water, and medical attention.

You will be able to return home when peace comes. All Japanese, military and civilian, will be in the same status. There will be no shame for anybody.

Leaflet 704

Navy leaflet 704 depicts a pagoda with the inscription: To Japanese Colonists on the front. The leaflet assures the non-combatant Japanese colonists that they will receive friendly treatment at American hands. The leaflet further stresses both Japan's failure to aid them and the kind treatment offered by the Americans. The procedure for surrender is also indicated. The text on the reverse of the leaflet printed in violet ink and reads:

You have come to the South Seas to till the soil and develop the myriad islands of the Pacific. You have worked hard. You are far away from the home land and from your friends. Life has not always been easy. But you endured because the military leaders promised to send ships. But they are all hiding in NAICHI. The Arawashi will not come out to save you in the South Seas. All their promises have been broken.

Now the American fleet and land forces have come to occupy this island. The American air force has driven the "Arawashi" away. They have already taken the GILBERTS, the MARSHALLS, and the MARIANAS. They have driven back the Japanese fleet.

But you need not die. You can build a new life like the hundreds of thousands of Japanese in HAWAII. After the fighting is over you will be returned to your farms and your homes will be rebuilt. You will be given food, water, and medical care immediately.

Here is what to do: Come out unarmed in the daytime, wear white or colored clothes, and carry white flags held high. Show the American troops that you are friendly and they will treat you as friends.

Save your lives.

Leaflet 806

Leaflet 820 depicts a peaceful scene of a deer, trees and a pagoda in the background. The text is similar to that of leaflet 520, and tells the Japanese soldier that it is proper to cease resistance and it is only the wrong teaching of the militarists that make him believe that the act is dishonorable.

The text on the back is:

Many Japanese believe that it is a disgrace to cease hostilities at one's request after fighting to the best of one's ability. Where did you get this idea? Who made you think this? There was no such idea when the Tokugawa submitted to the Emperor Meiji.

There was no such idea when more than two thousand Japanese prisoners were returned to Japan after the Russo-Japanese War. Many of these men are now in high positions in Japan. Why has the Gumbatsu suddenly taught that it is a disgrace to return to Japan?

Should you not think deeply about this matter?

The Tukugawa Shogunate (1603-1868) was the longest period of uninterrupted peace Japan ever enjoyed. Yet, it was not a happy time. The brilliant and ruthless administration of the Tokugawa military administration combined with the rigid seclusion of the country to produce the Japan that we know today.

Leaflet 1004

Navy leaflet 1004 depicts a smiling United States Marine giving a small Japanese child a ride on his shoulders. This is certainly one of the most informal poses presented on any American leaflet and meant to show the Japanese military and civilians that Americans were not the monsters that their propaganda had claimed. The text is:

When once the violent battle is concluded, a period of peace and relaxation ensues. The American forces, which annihilated the Japanese troops on Saipan, extend kind treatment and protection to the old and young of both sexes who were left behind. Japanese even become close friends with American troops. Both the boy and the Marine who is carrying him on his shoulders appear to be having great sport.

Leaflet 1006

One of the most attractive U.S. Navy leaflets is 1006. It was the first in a series of leaflets to be dropped over Japanese troops stranded on bypassed islands. The text is black brushwork on slick paper. The front depicts a beautiful plate of mixed sushi and other Japanese delicacies in full color. To see this leaflet is to salivate. The text is:

Your island has been isolated and cut off from all aid and supplies. You have almost no food and are slowly starving to death. You are as human as we are and the thought of your hunger is far from pleasant.

if you are hungry and wish to have good food, indicate that fact by displaying a large visible cross along the southeast intersection of the airfield runway. We will then be able to help you.

Former Marine Private First Class Fred Griffith recalls his unit, Marine Observation Squadron (VMO) 155 dropping this leaflet during WWII. He adds:

Our Marine fighter squadron was based on Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands during the last year of the war. The squadron was originally supposed to be an observation squadron but was changed to a fighter squadron a few months after it was formed. The men were really anxious to get into the battle, but instead, the squadron was used to train pilots before they were sent to the front to join a fighting unit. As part of their training the pilots flew missions against the many islands in the chain that were still occupied by the Japanese. Isolated Japanese forces held out on Wotje, Maloelap, Mili and Jaluit. These stragglers were supplied by an occasional enemy submarine. It was during these training missions right at the end of the war that the pilots strafed, bombed and dropped the leaflets. The leaflets were placed in wooden boxes and attached to the bomb hooks on the F4U Corsairs and dropped on these runs. The fighters received some anti-aircraft fire on these missions but none of the aircraft were ever hit. Some of our dive bombers were hit and had minor damage during their training missions over the isolated islands.

I worked in the carpenter shop where we built the boxes that were used to make the drops. Later, down by the flight line, the pilots gave me a few of the leaflets as souvenirs.

The new pilots trained for 3 months before moving on and being replaced by another group of fliers.

As happens so often, we find that each side has used almost the same PSYOP concept. Early in the war when American soldiers were starving, the Japanese dropped a leaflet that depicted a beautiful salad plate and American soldiers trapped on a small island, their burning fleet in the background. The text is, "Iron-rationed stranded. Nothing but dog-biscuits. Day after day, positively. How about a dish of salad like this? For a change of diet… just a change of mind." One wonders about the Japanese attitude toward food that would show a starving American a plate of salad. Perhaps their own dietary customs intruded on their propaganda. Would it not have been better to show the American’s a steak or hamburger?

Leaflet 1008

Leaflet 1008 is the third in a series of leaflets for specific by-passed islands. The front depicts a montage of photographs, including those of Japanese troops, U.S. dive-bombers, and ships at sea. Text on the front over the photographs is: Friendship, military might, and which is it to be?

Text on the back is:

Your situation is getting steadily worse. Saipan, Tinian, Guam, Palau, Eniwetok, Kwajelein, and practically all the rest of the South Seas Islands are in our hands. There is no chance for outside air, nor is there any chance of escape. Our Navy controls the sea and air. Your position is entirely hopeless. We don't need the island and will merely use it for bombing practice but we fell that it is shameful that you should have to die of hunger, thirst, and sickness without any accomplishment. Therefore, we who hate to see you die a useless death offer you a chance at survival. You have nothing to fear. We abide by international law and treat those who cease resistance as fellow men. It will cost you nothing to negotiate with us. Surely there must be volunteers who are brave enough to follow instructions, which will be dropped next.

As an indication of your willingness to negotiate with us display a large visible cross at the southeastern intersection of the aircraft runway.

Water - Leaflet 1013

This leaflet was dropped wherever and whenever the Japanese showed a willingness to cooperate or surrender. It was printed on yellow paper and as a result, the image is not particularly clear. The front depicts a group of Japanese prisoners near a U.S. water point. Large cans of water are everywhere. Superimposed on the picture is the word: water. The text is:

We have seen the indication of your willingness to negotiate with us. The plane will return soon with full instructions. follow the instructions and your safe conduct is guaranteed.

Supplies of fresh cold water, good food and medical assistance will be made available immediately after the completion of the negotiations.

Leaflet 1014

I added leaflet 1014 to this report because it is unique. Few leaflets use this type of image to capture the audience. The leaflet is plain black and white and depicts a sinking Japanese light cruiser in the crosshairs of a submarine periscope. The purpose is to emphasize Japanese shipping losses caused by American submarine action. There is no text on the front. Text on the back is:

When Admiral Nimitz, Commander-in-Chief of the Pacific Fleet, made mention recently of the effectiveness of the blockade against Japan, Domei was quick to reply that Japan is a land of rice and that she had enough food. During August, however, Tokyo admitted that the rice crop this year is causing greater concern than the crop in previous years.

You, however, really know the truth. You know how desperately in need of shipping Japan really is, and you should know how remarkably effective American submarines have been against your shipping.

If Japan were really strong, she would concern herself not with big talk about her highly doubtful self-sufficiency, but with an attempt to overcome the terrible submarine menace to her ships. But, unfortunately for you, that can only be done by ships, not be words.

Leaflet 2010

Leaflet 2010 is a leaflet that uses the theme of Japanese hypochondria to lower enemy morale. It is deigned to exploit the perceived Japanese fear of disease and uncleanliness. It depicts a strange monster-like figure representing death and disease crawling over the bodies of Japanese women and children. The text on the front is:

DISEASE COMES WITH EVERY WAR

The back is all text and says in part:

Disease comes with every war. Water lines and electricity will be destroyed by bombs. Food will become scarce. Thus you will weaken and become sick. Medicine will not be easy to buy and recovery will be difficult.

With every bombing the country becomes more unclean, and it is more difficult to control disease.

Put an end to this needless suffering. Demand that the militarists who started this was bring it to an end.

Leaflet 2014

Leaflet 2014 is very impressive from a visual standpoint. It shows a highly detailed and polished vertical black bomb on a red background. There is no text on the front.

The back depicts a vertical silhouette of the bomb with black text on a white background. The purpose of the leaflet is to tell the Japanese that America did not want to kill civilians, just destroy Japan's military strength. The text is:

This leaflet could have been a bomb.

This is to warn you away from military installations, factories,railways, and harbors where our bombs will strike again and again until the gumbatsu quits this hopeless war.

Stay away from military objectives!

Japanese 10 yen banknote Parody 2009

OWI printers working with the Navy on Saipan printed parodies of the 10 yen Bank of Japan convertible note of 1930, with code and propaganda text on the back. There are four such notes, each with a different text. The code numbers are 2009, 2016, 2017, and 2034. I first translated all four in an article entitled "Propaganda Currency of the Far East," Whitman Numismatic Journal, April, 1968. The notes were dropped on Japanese troops and civilians by carrier-based aircraft.

The translation for leaflet 2009 shown above is:

FIVE THOUSAND YEN. With this money, pay your land taxes. The military clique is squandering your tax money. The military caste has been spending an awful lot of your money, 5000 yen per individual person for this war. The longer the war endures, the more of your money the militarists will waste.

The text on leaflet 2016 is:

FACTORY WORKERS! [Shokko] Until now, you workers earned a great deal of money. But of what use is it to you? Your purchasing power is no different from that of this 10-yen bill. You who exert all your efforts in the production of war weapons should also be regarded as soldiers. You are the soldiers of armament production. But can you buy as much rice and beer as the soldiers? Can you purchase the commodities that soldiers and their families can buy with their special rations?

The text on leaflet 2017 is:

TO THE JAPANESE PEOPLE! The money and bonds deposited in the bank, are they of any use? We recommend that you instead buy daily necessities and commodities you will need in the future. Goods are becoming scarce. Because of the air raids, most of the shops will soon be unable to open. To cope with these difficult times, we recommend you buy food, clothing and the daily necessities. Money alone cannot prevent hunger, and it can not be used in place of food and clothing. With savings bonds, you cannot stop a child from crying. If you are prudent, you will buy commodities instead of depositing your money. This is not a time for saving. Now is the time for buying goods.

The text on leaflet 2034 is:

Before the military clique started the war, the following commodities could be bought with 10 yen in Showa 5 [1930].

* Two to and 5 sho [about 20 Kg] high quality rice.
* Textiles for summer clothing for eight persons.
* Four hyo [50 Kg. packages] charcoal

The following commodities could be bought with 10 yen just after the China incident in Showa 12 [1937].

* Two to and 5 sho low-quality rice.
* Textiles for summer clothing for five persons.
* Two and a half hyo [2 � packages] charcoal.

Today (1945), three years after you have fought a hopeless war against the world's strongest country, the following commodities can be bought for 10 yen.

* One sho and two go [1 � kg] good quality rice on the black market.
* A small amount of charcoal (if obtainable)
* No cotton material for clothes.

These are the results of the mutual prosperity your leaders told you about!

After the war, Iwatai Sakamoto, Chief of the censorship Bureau of the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department cited the 10-yen note leaflet as one of the most effective.

Toshikazu Kase, Chief of the First Section of the Third Department of the Cabinet Board of Information added:

The 10 yen note leaflet was the most effective. It was a very powerful leaflet. It evoked great interest and curiosity among the Japanese people.

Masjiro Kawaguchi, Chief of the Foreign Affairs Bureau of the Home Ministry forwarded a report that said:

Leaflets of our 10 yen notes most excited the curiosity of our people. The best leaflet was the one that dealt with the cost of living [No. 2034]. In Fukushima, Fukuka, and Aichi Prefectures there were cases where the 10 yen leaflet was used as currency.

A report of the Foreign Section of the Home Ministry adds:

The 10 yen banknote leaflet aroused the nation's curiosity and gave the financial circles anxiety as they believed that the Americans might drop counterfeit currency at a later date. The banknotes addressed to workers [2016] were unpopular among the working class because they felt insulted by the leaflet. About the 20th of June, a certain Yamazaki in Hiroshima Prefecture used the forged 10 yen note leaflet and was arrested.

Leaflet 2041

Leaflet 2041 is interesting because it uses as a theme the juxtaposition between German and Japanese defenses against bombing. At the right Nazi Germany is depicted with massive tunnels that lead many levels beneath the ground. Even so, American bombs have reached the hiding citizens. At the left, A Japanese woman is shown with a shovel and a bucket, and it is quite obvious that she is going to dig a hole just a few feet deep to protect herself. Some of the text is:

In London and Berlin, bomb shelters were deep underground, yet, bombs reached them. The Gumbatsu have not given you adequate protection against bombs.

Leaflet 2042

I have added leaflet 2042 because the vignette is so strange. The leaflet depicts a Japanese militarist looking at a map showing his military strength while behind him a figure of Uncle Sam stands with arms outstretched among planes, bombs, and ships. The text on the front is:

The Gumbatsu miscalculated America’s Fighting Strength.

The text on the back is from an article in the Chuo Koron of April 1925 by Hironori Mizuno on the subject of the American fighting spirit. Some of the text is:

To underrate and look down on the fighting spirit of the American people is a great mistake. In calculating the strength of America if we do not consider their manpower equal to our own, we shall make the same mistake as German did in misjudging the British people in the First World War.

Leaflet 2090

Leaflet 2090 is designed to destroy the people's confidence in the militarists. The front of the leaflet has an illustration of twelve prominent Japanese militarists with a caption above that reads:

Military leaders of Japan. Can you convince the people that you are able to defend the soil, the waters, and the skies of Japan?

The back of the leaflet depicts President Harry S. Truman and the following text:

These questions were asked by Harry S. Truman, President of the United States, in a message directed to the people of Japan.

"Did you not in the past solemnly declare that you would defend Guam, Tinian, the Philippines, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa, the last barricade on the way to Tokyo? Did you not promise in the past, that our planes would not violate the skies of Japan? Were you able to keep these promises?

Let me assure you again and again that my country is determined to fight this war to its predestined end and I cannot find any who thinks that our victory will be too hard and too costly to win.

Your future lies in your own hands. You can choose between a wasteful unclean death for many of your forces, or a peace with honor."

Leaflet 2109

I added leaflet 2109 because it is directed at the Japanese suicide pilots, those volunteers that followed the co