Headquarters, Southwest Pacific Area (SWPA) was created 18 April 1942 in Melbourne, Australia. General Douglas MacArthur was appointed supreme
commander. In July 1942, SWPA created the Far Eastern Liaison Office (FELO). It was made
up mostly of Australians from their Allied Intelligence Bureau (AIB). FELO produced and
dropped 58,000.000 leaflets in six languages during the war. In June 1944, SWPA created
the Psychological Warfare Branch, Southwest Pacific Area (PWB SWPA). It was made up
mostly of Americans, including members of the Office of War Information (OWI) and a number
of Australian FELO members. PWB now had the responsibility for PSYOP in the Southwest
Pacific Area.
An Australian “I Cease Resistance” Leaflet
One of the Australian “Cease Resistance” leaflets has red and blue
diagonal stripes at the left, Japanese text in the center and English language text at the
bottom:
The bearer has ceased resistance. Treat him well in accordance with
international law. Take him to the nearest commanding officer. C-in-C Allied Forces.
The back of the leaflet is all Japanese text. The leaflet bears no code.
Australian “I Cease Resistance” Leaflet
A second Australian leaflet is very similar in appearance and bears the same
English-language message on the front.
Australian “I Cease Resistance” Leaflet
A third Australian “Cease resistance” leaflet is similar in appearance
with the same text on the front. The back has Japanese text and two photographs depicting
Australian and Japanese POWs in friendly interaction.
Australian “I Cease Resistance” Leaflet
A fourth Australian version of the “Cease resistance” leaflet has Japanese
text on the front and the back.
Sergeant Albert B. Gerger was interviewed about persuading Japanese soldiers to give
up by the Manila Chronicle, 19 October 1945. The story was later distributed
worldwide by the Associated Press. Gerger mentions that the early leaflets were
unsuccessful. The Americans were not sure why leaflets that seemed to be so well written
and illustrated had such poor results. Filipino scouts were sent into the field to study
the problem.
A Japanese soldier was seen to examine one of the leaflets and then throw it on the
ground, grinding it under his heel as he muttered 'Mujokan Kofuku,' the most despised term
a Japanese soldier can utter, 'surrender.' From the time a Japanese can understand the
meaning of simple words it s driven into his mind that the worse crime he can commit is to
surrender. For this there is no forgiveness and one who surrenders sacrifices everything;
his property, honor, rights, rights in life and after-life, and the respect of his fellow
man.
Our experts in psychological warfare held a huddle and came up with a new one,
replacing the 'I surrender' on the leaflet with 'I cease resistance.' It worked.
The Japanese indoctrination was not based on logic or intelligent thought. The
Japanese knows that he must not 'mujoken kofuku' and that is all. There is nothing in his
learning that prohibits the cessation of resistance. There is even a good Japanese
expression used in normal daily living that expresses the same idea, 'Shikata-ga Mai,'
freely translated, 'The Hell with it.' The combination of the new leaflet and re-trained
troops produced results. The trickle of surrenders became a stream.
The early leaflets have no photographs on front, just text in English and Japanese. The
text is, "I Surrender. Attention American soldiers. This leaflet guarantees humane
treatment to any Japanese desiring to surrender. Take him to your nearest Commissioned
Officer. By order C.G. U.S. Forces" The text on the back is:
To all the men and officers of the Japanese force.
We are saddened by your participation in the war but we applaud and salute your
bravery shown thus far. However, with our unity and the advantage of our superior
scientific weaponry, you must understand that final victory truly belongs to the United
States.
You were convinced and trusted that Japan will prevail and therefore left your
hometown thousands of miles behind to arrive at a strange place. However, it made your
heart bleed to find out that the Japanese aircraft and weaponry are inferior to that of
the Allies.
Furthermore, our navy and air force have gained control over southern Formosa as
well as the Pacific region. Now, who shall bear the responsibility?
There are other developments too. Japan herself has begun to face a shortage in
resources and those she acquired from the Southern Regions. The world's 'treasure house'
is now useless as it is already impossible to transport the much-needed commodities to the
battle zone. In your present situation, do you honestly still believe that you have a
chance at victory? However, take heart; this is no fault of yours. The responsibility lies
solely on the inexpediency of your head of military department in Tokyo.
Without an iota of a chance of victory, what else can you do? For the sake of the
liberty and the posterity of postwar Japan, don't you think we should join hands and work
at rebuilding Japan?
Already, a segment of your enlightened Japanese comrades-in-arms in New Guinea has
come to their senses, laid down their arms and quit fighting such a futile and bloody war.
Come on! Conserve yourself so that you will be able to work hard at rebuilding postwar
Japan!
As far as possible, hang this leaflet on a wooden stick or hold it in your hand and
approach our U.S. forces in truce.
Leaflet 8J6
The very first leaflet is uncoded. The later leaflets are all coded with a
"J" for "Japan." Among them are 1(a)J1 (large leaflet with blank
back), 1(b)J1 (Large leaflet with message on back), 1(c)J1 (small leaflet with blank back)
and 8J6 (large leaflet with text on the back). 500,000 of these leaflets were
printed in September 1944 at the request of the Sixth Army.
The failure of the surrender leaflets led the American PSYOP specialists to carefully
construct a leaflet with the words "I cease resistance." The change was minor,
but to the Japanese the new wording meant a world of difference. One could cease
resistance and allow himself to be taken while never surrendering. A curious use of the
Asian concept of "face."
The leaflet was used a number of times in slightly different versions. In some,
Japanese prisoners were shown. In others, just a hand holding a leaflet reading "I
cease resistance" on a stick. They were apparently much more successful than the
earlier leaflets and did result in Japanese soldiers allowing themselves to be taken
prisoner. The message in each version of the leaflet is very respectful toward the
Japanese soldier. It always complements him on his bravery and loyalty. Each message
attacks his leadership and blames his ills on poor decisions by his Generals and the
government.
17-J-1
An example of the series is leaflet 17-J-1. It is a large leaflet, 7 5/8 x 10 5/8
inches. It is brightly colored in red, white and blue. The text is in English and
Japanese. There are six vertical lines of Japanese text. The English-language text is,
"Attention American Soldiers! I cease resistance. This leaflet guarantees humane
treatment to any Japanese desiring to cease resistance. Take him immediately to your
nearest Commissioned Officer. By Direction of the Commander in Chief." There is a
photo of three smiling Japanese "guests" at the lower left. Their eyes have been
blanked out to protect their identity. This was probably appreciated by the prisoners. In Cease
Resistance, It's Good for You: A History of U.S. Army Combat Psychological Operations,
2nd edition, 1999, author Stanley Sandler says, "This policy, which was evident in
the blanking out of the eyes of any POWs photographed close-up, convinced more than one
enemy soldier that the Americans could not be quite as barbarous as depicted by Japanese
propaganda." On the other hand, some written reports state that Japanese officers
used the blanked-out faces to argue to their soldiers that the men pictured were not
Japanese at all. They claimed it was a typical devious American deception. A brief
description of the known leaflets follows:
17-J-1. "I Cease Resistance." Produced by the Far Eastern Liaison Office
(FELO) of General MacArthur's South West Pacific Area (SWPA). The message entitled
"Decision" promises that prisoners of war will be treated with all the rights
guaranteed by the Geneva Convention. This leaflet was printed about March 1945. POWs
informed the Americans during interrogation that Japanese officers and soldiers had little
or no knowledge of the Geneva Convention. As a result of the comments, the pertinent
chapters of the Geneva Convention in regard to prisoners of war were printed on the back
of the leaflet.
Carl Berger says in An Introduction to Wartime Leaflets, Special Operations
Research Office, The American University, 1959, "Another special problem that arose
when dealing with the Japanese was the fact that their cultural backgrounds produced
unusual reactions from the western viewpoint. For example, although Allied leaflet writers
promised 'kind treatment, good food, medical care, etc.,' the following reaction was
reported by the 96th Division. 'Their greatest anxiety is that their families might be
notified. The prisoners were unanimous in this concern, and stated that we would have many
more surrenders if they were sure that messages would not be sent to their homes saying
that they are prisoners of war. These latter points can be stressed in leaflets that are
dropped before the direct appeal.' Allied propagandists took a step toward meeting this
special situation, by altering photos of captured Japanese soldiers reproduced in "I
Cease Resistance" leaflets and reporting, 'Eyes are covered to protect the families
in Japan.' However, the 96th Division reported that the Japanese still needed more
assurance on this point."
17a-J-1. "I Cease Resistance." The
front shows a photograph of three happy Japanese POWs in an Allied camp and six vertical
lines of Japanese text. The Japanese text on
front is:
This man is no longer an enemy, According to International Law, he is guaranteed
personal safety, clothes, food, quarters and medical attention.
The text on back is:
OFFICERS AND MEN OF THE JAPANESE ARMY. We respect the way you have fought under
difficult circumstances up to now. However, our troops are determined to win the war.
Our troops are equipped with the most modern, death-dealing equipment. Our
devastating artillery and bombing attacks are increasing in intensity. Behind this is the
united purpose of all our officers and men. Victory for us is a certainty.
You left your home convinced that Japan would win this war. But when you arrived in
a strange land, many hundreds of miles from home, you discovered that the airplanes and
other military equipment of the Japanese Army could not compare with those of the Allies.
Our fleet and air force dominate the sea and air in the Pacific (south of Formosa).
Present conditions of the war make it clear, as you know, that you have no hope of victory
in the coming battle. These conditions are not your fault. They are due to the failure of
the overall strategy of your military leaders. Do you help your country by losing your
life in this hopeless struggle?
It is easy to die but hard to live. Is it not your duty to preserve your life and
help rebuild the future Japan? Your comrades in New Guinea and the Solomons realized this.
They did not squander their lives. They were determined to do their utmost for the
reconstruction of Japan. We hope you will also make this correct decision.
If possible, put this paper on a stick, hold it in your hand and raise both arms as
you come toward our lines. When you meet our troops do not be afraid. You may follow their
hand signals without anxiety.
The leaflet code appears on the back at the lower left below the long propaganda text.
25-J-1
25-J-1. I cease resistance. No photograph of prisoners on the front. Instead, a hand
holds a safe conduct pass on a stick. The back has text, "Your comrades in arms who
are on the road to rebirth" and "Yesterday we were enemies, today we are
friends." This leaflet depicts the life of Japanese prisoners of war in Allied camps.
Numerous photographs show them getting haircuts, wrestling, buying food in a commissary,
etc. The leaflet was dropped over Indonesia and the Solomon Islands. The photographs were a direct result of Japanese POWs
telling their American captors that one of their main worries was the question of how they
would spend their time in custody. Would there be meaningful work for them to do? The
American leaflet answers the question by depicting regular activities and the availability
of training and jobs if the prisoners so desire.
108-J-1
108-J-1. I cease resistance. This leaflet has no illustration on the front. It is all
text with the standard message at top and a small boxed Japanese-language message at the
bottom front. It was prepared on 11 April 1945 for use in Luzon, the Philippine Islands.
It was prepared by the Psychological Warfare Branch, U.S. Army Forces, Pacific Area, APO
500, at the request of Headquarters, Sixth Army. Text on the back of the leaflet is:
TO JAPANESE SOLDIERS IN THE BATTLE-LINES OF NORTHERN LUZON.
The military operations in the island of Luzon are drawing to a close. As you all
know, the Japanese forces have unfortunately been put in a position where they have no
chance at all to win.
In central Luzon, they have been completely crushed. All the seacoasts as well as
Manila are now back in American hands. The American Navy has complete control of
Philippine waters, and the American Air Force has complete control of the air. Not one
Japanese plane can be seen in the Philippines. Furthermore, now both the American and
Philippine Armies are fully supplied with arms, ammunition, and military supplies of every
description.
Japanese forces have fought bravely, but American mechanical strength is
overwhelming. If you take into consideration both this fact, and the present condition of
the Japanese battle lines, you will come to realize that further resistance by the
Japanese Army is wholly meaningless and that it would not be of any service either to
yourselves or to Japan.
Why not make you decision now to cease resistance and come under the protection of
the American Army until the day when a peaceful Japan will reappear? American forces will
not submit you to humiliation for being defeated.
Do not feel that there is any need for shame. Rather, forget the painful past.
Seize the opportunity to plan for the future, and come over to the American lines. We will
treat you as brave and gallant soldiers who are worthy of honor.
However, your officers, who know all about the present situation, may think of
their own prestige and not tell the truth to you. They may try to hinder you, but do not
be afraid. Slip away during the darkness by two or three and come down the mountain.
On the back of this leaflet it is ordered that both American and Philippine Army
soldiers take care that you be treated with respect as Japanese soldiers who have fought
hard and bravely. However, in order to avoid mistakes, be careful not to approach American
lines at night. Come only between sunrise and sunset.
Then, when you approach sentries of the American or Philippine Army give a signal
by waving this leaflet. We have given strict orders to our soldiers in the front lines not
to harm you or treat you violently.
Remember that the sooner you make your decision the sooner radiant peace will come.
Our best wishes to you.
109-J-1
109-J-1. I cease resistance. This leaflet has no illustration on the front. It is all
text with the standard message at top and a small boxed Japanese-language message at the
bottom front. It was prepared on 20 January 1945 for use in Luzon, the Philippine Islands.
It was prepared by the Psychological Warfare Branch at the request of Headquarters, Sixth
Army. Text on the back of the leaflet is:
SOLDIERS OF NIPPON: You have fought with bravery, and we have gained deep respect
for your courage. However, the war cannot be won by courage alone. Our troops have
overwhelming superiority on the sea, the land and in the air. Your fate is like a
flickering candle in the wind. What can be gained by further resistance?
In other sectors, Japanese soldiers ordered by the officers to continue a hopeless
battle have suffered great misery needlessly. They have run out of food and supplies. Some
have starved; others have died of wounds or painful tropical disease.
However, many others have ceased resistance and are now in our care. These men
receive the same food as American troops. In our hospitals, American doctors are treating
Japanese soldiers side by side with American troops.
Soldiers, think this over. Throw away your weapons and helmets, and come out waving
this paper. Any number of you may surrender with this one leaflet.
Bring your wounded with you and we will care for them. Japanese soldiers already
with us understand that we follow the famous Samurai saying: "between victor and
vanquished there are enemies no more.
121-J-1
121-J-1. I cease resistance. Dropped over Cagayan in the Philippine Islands on 27 April
1945. This leaflet shows the code number 17-J-1 on the front and is almost identical to
17J1 above, except that it has seven lines of Japanese text and a fourth Japanese prisoner
now appears at the far right of the three prisoners shown in 17-J-1. The back is a long
propaganda text with the code 121-J-1 at the lower left.
141-J-1. I cease resistance.
27-J-3. I cease resistance. This leaflet depicts Japanese soldiers and officers.
Japanese soldiers holding "I Cease Resistance" leaflets
Friendly Japanese prisoners of war had much input into the messages on these safe
conduct pass leaflets. Since surrender was never mentioned or even hinted at during their
indoctrination, they had no guidelines of how to act in captivity. They considered
themselves dead in the eyes of Japan and were ready for rebirth under the control of their
captors. They were more than willing to help their new American "friends."
Allison B. Gilmore mentions their contributions in her book You Can’t Fight
Tanks with Bayonets, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, 1998:
They (the Japanese prisoners who worked with the Americans) replaced the standard
surrender leaflet entitled ‘I Cease Resistance,’ initiated a widespread
distribution of leaflets containing the terms of the Geneva Convention's provisions
relative to the treatment of prisoners, wrote leaflets clearly defining the steps one must
take to surrender safely, and described what life was like for Japanese prisoners already
in captivity.
There is reason to believe that the safe conduct passes were effective. We cannot say
if the Japanese in the Philippine Islands who surrendered did so because of the leaflets,
the military situation, or simply because they were tired of the war and realized that
they could not win. Whatever the reason, statistics show that in November 1944, One
hundred Japanese soldiers died in battle for every one that surrendered. Two months later,
the ratio fell to 60:1. Three months after that the ratio dropped to 30:1. By July 1945,
one Japanese soldier surrendered for every seven of his comrades killed. In early 1945,
interrogations proved that 46% of the Japanese taken prisoners in the Philippine campaign
were "influenced" by the Allied propaganda leaflets. Whatever the reason, the
myth of the Samurai warrior, the code of Bushido, and that Japanese soldiers never
surrender was effectively destroyed.
The one interesting fact that we run into over and over again is the difficulty that
military intelligence had in getting American servicemen to take prisoners. Because of the
desire for revenge for the Sunday morning sneak attack on Pearl Harbor, knowledge of
the Bataan Death March and other Japanese wartime atrocities, many American soldiers and
Marines preferred to kill the enemy rather than take him prisoner. This was a constant
struggle and numerous lectures, publications, leaflets and even short films were used in
an attempt to get the American troops to comply with the wishes of their superiors. The
troops were constantly reminded that Japanese soldiers provided valuable intelligence
about troop movements, enemy concentrations, weapons and morale. The Japanese expected to
die in battle for their Emperor and had never been instructed on how to act when captured
or surrendering. They had no code of conduct. They felt that there was no chance of them
ever returning to Japan so they were willing to tell interrogators everything that they
knew. The trick was just to take them alive. After one massacre, General MacArthur ordered
an investigation to find out who shot surrendering Japanese troops in the Hollandia area.
He stated in cable to the Commanding General of the Alamo Force:
This situation must be corrected if propaganda for surrender is to be successful.
CINCPAC-CINCPAO leaflet 811
Douglas Macarthur's staff was not the only group producing PSYOP leaflets in the
Pacific. The U.S. Navy had its own organization that some might say was in direct
competition with the Army. In reality, the Navy worked with a government organization, the
Office of War Information. The OWI had offices in Washington D.C., San Francisco, Honolulu,
and Saipan. At the highest echelon, the Navy and Army squabbled over which service
would exercise supreme command in the Pacific. The Joint Chiefs divided the Pacific into
two strategic entities, one in which the Navy would be dominant, the Central Pacific Ocean
Area (POA), and the other in which the Army would be the dominant, the Southwest Pacific
Area (SWPA). This did not end the problem, as the two theater headquarters fought for the
remainder of the war over strategy, resources, and control of operations.
The Navy/OWI produced millions of leaflets in the Japanese language for use in the
areas that it was authorized to control. The leaflets were produced by the Psychological
Warfare Section of the Commander in Chief Pacific Fleet (CINCPAC) and Commander in Chief
Pacific Ocean Areas (CINCPOA). CINCPOA was located on Guam in the Mariana Islands and was
the home of the Advanced Intelligence Center (AIC). AIC was responsible for Psychological
Warfare. Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, USN, was Commander in Chief, U. S. Pacific Fleet
and Pacific Ocean Areas.
The Navy printed a number of leaflets that were similar to the "I Cease
Resistance" safe conduct passes. The main difference is that instead of
"I," they often said "The bearer." They are similar otherwise, and
bear the same red, white, and blue stripes as the Army leaflet.
810
Navy leaflets bore numerical codes. Two such leaflets are 810 and 811. Both leaflets
have the text on front, "The bearer has ceased resistance. Treat him in accordance
with international law. Take him to the nearest commanding officer. C-in-C Allied
Forces." They have the English language message (slightly changed on each leaflet)
below:
1. The American forces will aid all who use this card.
2. Using this, you will receive good treatment."
The above text appears both in English and in Japanese. The text below is in English on
the front and repeated in Japanese on the back."
(Translation) Life Saving Guarantee.
1. Come slowly toward the American lines with your hands raised high above your head
carrying only this card.
2. Come one by one. Do not come in groups.
3. Men must wear only loin cloths. We will provide clothing.
4. Your must not approach American positions at night.
5. This card may be used by anyone - Japanese or Koreans, soldiers or civilians.
6. Those who do not have cards may come to us if they follow instructions as if they
had a leaflet.
The official Navy document that was prepared with this leaflet states that its purpose
was "to affect a rapid surrender of Japanese troops." It further states
that "The text is written in very simple Japanese, and should be readily understood
by all Japanese troops. The red, white, and blue color design is intended for American
troops who might not otherwise realize that the Japanese soldier is surrendering.”
The Falling Leaf of Winter 1968 mentions that Leaflet 811 was used extensively by the
Americans during the Okinawa campaign. Its distribution was withheld until a concentrated
effort was made to effect mass surrenders during the last ten days of organized
resistance. About 600,000 copies of the red, white and blue sheet, size 5 x 8 inches were
showered on the enemy. The necessity of having all American front-line troops schooled in
the recognition of the surrender leaflet saw 10,000 copies, 15 per company, issued to the
men a day or two before large scale use of it was begun. As in all surrender leaflets, the
use of the word "surrender" and the term "prisoner of war" were
studiously avoided."
I am sure that there are many more "I cease resistance" leaflets. Unlike
Europe where the climate was such that leaflets could be collected and saved, the heat and
humidity of the Pacific Theater worked against the collecting and cataloging of PSYOP
leaflets. Data and specimens are scarce.
American propagandists constantly worked on their propaganda leaflets and improved
the illustrations and text in an effort to convince the Japanese to surrender. Nisei were
deployed from the United States to work on the Japanese-language messages and a number of
Japanese prisoners-of-war also helped in the writing and evaluation of the leaflets. It
appears that the effort was unsuccessful. The number of prisoners who came over to the
American lines was miniscule. As the Americans slowly advanced and the battered Japanese
took worse beatings and more horrendous defeats, the number of surrenders gradually rose,
but this was probably caused more by their desperation and realization of the futility of
continuing the fight than a belief that their cause was wrong.
Eleanor Sparagana records some death and surrender totals for the last six months of
the war in her doctorial thesis entitled, The
Conduct and Consequences of Psychological Warfare: American Psychological Warfare
Operations in the War against Japan, 1941-1945. From October 1944 to April 1945 only
about 1% of Japanese troops surrendered compared to the number that were killed. In May
1945 the number rose to 3.3%, In June it rose to 5.2%. The final totals are for June 1945
when the numbers rise to 12.5%.
Readers with more information on any aspect of this article are encouraged to write the
author at
